This is a link to mine, Jenna's, and Zara's Photosynthesis Prezi

http://prezi.com/7rij7czqag5i/photosynthesis/

Photosynthesis Dry Lab

                                                               PROCEDURES

 Step # 1- First, gather up all of your materials which are three test tubes, bromothymol  
           blue, two aquarium snails, one aquarium plant, two elodea plants, pond water, and a lamp.

 Step # 2- Next, fill a test tube with 30 ml of pond water and sit it on the counter for twenty minutes.

 Step # 3- Then after twenty minutes is up, add 35 ml of bromothymol blue to the test tube with  
          the 30 ml of pond water.

Step # 4- After that, wait twenty minutes and record your results.

Step # 5- When twenty minutes is up, record the color that you got and it should be a blue-green color.

Step # 6- Then, add an aquarium snail to the test tube.

Step # 7- Wait twenty minutes, and record your results.

Step # 8- After twenty minutes is up, record the color that you got and the color should have changed to  
          a yellow color.

Step # 9- Then add 30 ml of pond water, 35 ml of bromothymol blue, and an aquarium plant to another  
           test tube.
 
Step # 10- Wait twenty minutes, and add an elodea plant.

Step # 11- Then leave it under the lamp for it to get light for thirty minutes, and then record your results.

Step # 12- When thirty minutes is up, record the color that you got and it should be a blue-green color. 

Step # 13- After that, add 30 ml of pond water, 35 ml of bromothymol blue, an elodea plant, and 
          an aquarium snail to another test tube.

Step # 14- Then leave it under the lamp for it to get light for thirty minutes and record your results.

Step #15- When thirty minutes is up, record the color that you got and it should be a blue-green color.

Step # 16- After that, leave it in the dark for three hours.

Step # 17- After three hours is up, record the color that you got and it should be a yellow color.

Step # 18- When you are all done with the lab, clean up your mess and put your materials away.



  The fact that bromothymol blue is a blue-green liquid which changes to a yellow color in acid and back to blue-green when returned to a neutral pH explains the observation that water plus bromothymol blue plus an aquarium snail turns yellow. The fact that carbon dioxide plus water yields sugar and oxygen when chlorophyll and sunlight are presesnt explains the observation that water plus bromothymol blue plus elodea, an aquarium plant, is blue-green in light. The fact that sugar plus oxygen yields dioxide plus water and energy explains the observation that water plus bromothymol blue is blue-green. The fact that green plants photosynthesize in the light and respire all the time explains the observation that water plus bromothymol blue plus a snail plus elodea is blue-green in light and yellow when left in the dark for three hours. The fact that animals respire explains the observation that water plus bromothymol blue plus a snail plus elodea is blue-green in light and yellow when left in the dark for three hours.The fact that carbon dioxide in water produces carbonic acid explains that water plus bromothymol blue plus an aquarium snail turns yellow.

Enzyme Lab Data

In class we we did an enzyme lab, and in our group we set up the experiment by starting with five drops of yeast and peroxide, and the slope was 0.008082 atm's. Then, our group decided to increase the number of drops to twenty and the slope increased to a 0.01439. When you increase the number of drops the slope usually increases. After we collected that data we increased the number of drops to forty five and the slope decreased to a 0.002416. It was very odd of the type of results we got because we thought that the slope would increase. After that, we tested the effects of temperature on the enzymes and we started off by testing it at room temperature and the slope was 0.00291 atm's. Then, we tested it at cold temperature and the slope increased to 0.1625. When we tested it at a hot temperature, it didn't have much of an effect on it because the slope increased a little to a 0.174. Our group thought that it would be a big increase, but it wasn't. The slope was very high on our graph of the ph level of four, which was a slope of 0.1466 atm's. The slope decreased a lot at a -0.2515 at a ph level of seven. Then, our results increased to a slope of 0.07981 at a ph level of ten.

As, I was taking a look at another group's data for there temperature graph, I noticed that there slope increased and decreased. On there graph the slope decreased when they tested it at 80 celsius. There results showed that they started testing at 25 celsius. In conclusion, the results from this lab showed how enzymes increase and decrease depending on how you set up the experiment. As, you increase the number of drops the slope usually increases, but we got odd results in our experiment when we tested forty five drops because the slope decreased. I learned a lot about how enzymes function by doing this interesting lab.

   

A Poison Called Arsenic




This is a picture showing what it looks like when you breath in arsenic.

 

This is a picture showing what a case of poison arsenic looks like.






I'am writing an article to meet standard two. In the article, " Health Information about Arsenic", it is about how arsenic was discovered in Maryland, and how it is usually found in a combination with other elements. Many arsenic compounds are colorless powders that do not evaporate. Arsenic has no smell, and does not have a taste. The inorganic forms of arsenic are usually more toxic than its organic complex compounds found in animal and plant tissues. Arsenic is used for many things, such as controling insects and bacteria. People are exposed to this poison in many different ways such as breathing in dust particles that were contaminated with arsenic, and drinking groundwater that contains arsenic. Arsenic can't be destroyed because it is a basic element. It moves around in the environment, and changes forms. It usually moves with water, but sometimes it can stay in the soil for a very long time without traveling with the water through the soil. When arsenic enters your body it is carried in the bloodstream to parts of the body. Your liver converts the absorbed arsenic to a less hazardous form, and then your kidneys remove it in the urine. Then, the majority of the arsenic is gone after the exposure. Sometimes, your body can develop a burden of arsenic, if a large amount of arsenic is absorbed. High results of arsenic can result in death, and low levels of arsenic can result in vomitting and nausea. It can cause a pattern of skin changes.

Children are exposed to arsenic by playing in dirt, and putting their hands in their mouth. Children who have had a long-term exposure to arsenic has shown a result in lower IQ scores. They also are exposed to getting arsenic by playing on equipment made up of arsenic-treated lumber. Some ways to prevent the risks of being exposed to arsenic is to keep children away from playing in contaminated dirt, wash toys and pacifiers that children put in their mouths, avoid using arsenic-treated lumber around the home, was vegtetable and fruits in the garden to remove soil particles,  and prevent your pets from tracking in contaminated soil into your home. Tests of your fingernails, and hair can measure the exposure to arsenic over the past 6-12 months. Then, the tests can prove whether or not you have been exposed to high levels of arsenic. 90% of all arsenic produced is used as a preservative for wood so that it doesn't rot or decay. U.S. manufactures of wood preservatives have phased out the use of CCA in wood products, such as in picnic tables and boardwalks. I have a good understanding about arsenic and what it is. This article provided a lot of information about arsenic, and many helpful ways in order to prevent people and their families from being exposed to this poison.
  
          http://www.mde.state.md.us/programs/Marylander/PublicHealthHome/Documents/www.mde.state.md.us/assets/document/Factsheets/Arsenic_Health_Info.pdf

                                                                                

The Condition Phenylketonuria (PKU)

This is a diagram showing what the genes of an unaffected father and mother carrier are, and the possibilities of their child  having PKU.

    Phenylketonuria was introduced in 1934 by a Norwegian doctor named Asbjorn Folling. He found a substance in the urine of both a mother's handicapped children, and identified the substance as phenylketone, which gave him the name phenylketonuria. This rare condition builds up of a natural substance called phenylalanine that's in your body. It is a building block of proteins. Newborns are tested for PKU when they are born. Phenylalanine is found in the protein part of the different foods we eat, and it is a treatable condition. The development and the normal growth of the baby's brain was affected. Sometimes, children may become severely mentally abnormal. The purpose of the treatment is to stop the build up of phenylalanine, by using a special kind of diet. The treatment for PKU has been available since the 1950's. Doctors and many health professional are still learning about this condition. The normal diet is made up of sugars, proteins, and fats. The protein food can't be used properly in children who have PKU.

Phenylalanine is one of the amino acids, which explains why it can't be used properly. Whenever you eat meat, it begins by digesting in the stomach. It breaks down the links joining the amino acids together. Phenylalanine is used for growth. The extra amino acids are changed into other substances called enzymes which are special chemicals. Usually the excess phenylalanine is changed into another amino acid called tyrosine, by an enzyme called phenylalanine hydroxylase. Tyrosine makes a lot of important substances such as chemical messengers and hormones for the brain.

 In children who have phenylketonuria the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase is not present or it is working very poorly. The body is not capable of changing phenylalanine into tyrosine. This is what causes results in high concentrations of phenylalanine in the blood. So, in order to treat PKU you must lower the amount of phenylalanine in your diet so your body has just enough for tissue repair and growth. There have been products developed that have little or none phenylalanine. If your baby has PKU then you will have to send samples of your baby's blood to the hospital laboratory to check that the phenylalanine level is being kept at a normal limit. So, you have to eat food that has low protein, such as fruit juice and fruits. Around the age of 10-14 years old the diet can be discontinued safely.

Adults who have this condition usually have nervous system disorders such as poor coordination of the hand. Parents who have a baby with PKU had a normal gene and one faulty gene for the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. 1 person in 50 people have one abnormal gene for PKU, and is a carrier of it. Parents who have more than one kid, it doesn't mean that all of their children will have this condition because each child inherits one gene from each parent. They can either inherit a PKU gene or a normal gene from each parent. The chances of your child with phenylketonuria having a partner who is a carrier of the PKU gene is about 1 in every 50 people. The risk of them having a child with PKU is around 1 in 100. Babies born to a mother with PKU with high phenylalanine levels may have a chance of being physically and mentally damaged in the womb, and the effects are permanent. A good developed diet control must be started before having a planned pregnancy. If an unplanned pregnancy occurs, then you must seek for advice. I have a good understanding about this condition PKU and how it is identified in babies, and how you treat it.

Different Parts of a Cell on Prezi

Blog Revision of Diffusion and Osmosis Lab Quiz

The concentrations of the glucose inside and outside of the dialysis bag after 1 hour would be that the glucose would leave the bag due to the process of diffusion. Its the movement of solutes from areas of the high concentration to the low concentration. So, the concentrations of glucose inside and outside of the bag  will eventually become equal. The side of the diagram that would tend to move inside the bag would be the water because the concentration is greater because of the presence of glucose and starch. The starch stays inside of the bag because its a bigger molecule. Osmosis will then happen as the water moves into the bag until the concentration is the same on both sides of the membrane. This describes the lab that we did because the evidence that we collected in our group showed that the bag was clear because the water diffused into the bag. Also, the starch stayed in the bag because there was purple stuff at the bottom. The glucose test strips showed evidence supporting why the glucose left the bag.

The Devastating Disease called Cystic Fibrosis (CF)



This is a picture represting organs that are affected by cystic fibrosis.







Cystic fibrosis is a life time threatening genetic disease that causes mucus to build up in your lungs, and clog organs in your body. By having mucus clog your lungs it causes you to have problems breathing well. Bacteria then occurs and it leads to horrible infections. People inherit this disease from their parents through genes. Genes are found in the nucleus of all the body's cells, and it controls cell function by serving the role for the production of proteins.

 In order to have cystic fibrosis, the person must inherit two copies of the defective CF gene, which is one copy from each parent. There are 30,000 people in the United States who have this disease. One in every 31 Americans are carriers of the defective CF gene, but they actually don't have the disease. Some of the symptoms of cystic fibrosis is if you have salt-tasting skin, if you have a lot of lung infections, the consistency of coughing a lot, and shortness of breath. The majority of people are diagnosed at birth through a process called newborn screening. If the doctor sees symptoms of cystic fibrosis then they will order a sweat test to confirm the diagnosis. A sweat test is a very common method that is used in which a small electrode is placed usually on your arm to stimulate the sweat glands. If the level of chloride is high then that means the person has cystic fibrosis.

The healthy CF gene makes a protein which is Cystic Fibrosis conductance Transmembrane Regulator which controls the movement of electrically charged particles in and out of the cells. People who have cystic fibrosis, this protein is defective and the salt balanced is disturbed. Since there is a small amount of salt and water on the outside of the cells, the layer of mucus becomes very thick. There is no cure for cystic fibrosis, but medical care, and drug treatments can lenghten the lives of people with this severe disease. Most of the people living with CF take multi-vitamins, and take pancreatic enzyme supplement capsules with every meal. There is not a life expectancy, because different factors affect a person's health. Mucus-Thinners and Anti- inflammatories are some medicines that treat lung infections. 

Lining cells have channels on their outside surface. There are two channels and one of the channels allow sodium ions to flow into the cell and the other channel controls the path of chloride ions out of the cell into the mucus on to the airway surface. Water is drawn out through the gaps between the cells, which keeps the mucus moist. The vital chloride channel is blocked in people with cystic fibrosis . There is no movement that occurs of chloride ions into the mucus. The chloride channel is made up of a protein called CF transmembrane regulator. Its main function is to maintain the flow of chloride ions from the cell. Nothin is confusing to me about the role of CF. I have a good concept of what cystic fibrosis is, and how the channels function by having this disease.

Cell Membrane Structure!!!

This is a picture of a cell membrane. 
  

In class, we have been studying about the structure of the cell membrane. The cell membrane is a fluid mosaic of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Lipids are hydrophobic, in which the molecules consists of long 18-22 carbon. The backbones consists of a small amount of oxygen containing groups. Fats, steroids, and phospholipids are very important to the functioning of membranes in cells. Fats are categorized into two different classes of molecules, which are saturated and unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids don't have carbon-carbon double bonds. Unsaturated fatty acids have one to four double bonds between adjacent carbon atoms.

Phospholipids contain two fatty acid tails, which are hydrophobic that is attached to a glycerol head. Phospholipids are hydrophobic and hydrophilic because the tails repel water and the heads attract water. They serve as a very important function in the cells of all organisms. They form the phospholipids membranes which surrounds the cell and intracellular structures. Steroids are types of lipids that are based on a molecule with four carbon rings. It includes a lot of hormones of animals and cholesterol. In order for the cell to grow, the cell membrane must be a dynamic structure and respond to environmental changes. The correct ratio of saturated to unsaturated fatty acids keeps the membrane fluid at any temperature. 


Proteins are a different group of molecules that are composed of amino acids. They are classified into two categories, integral proteins and peripheral proteins. Integral proteins are transmembrane proteins, with hydrophobic regions that cover the surface of the membrane. They transmit signals in and out of the cell. Peripheral proteins stick to only one side of the membrane, which are usually attached to integral proteins. Proteins are much larger than lipids, and they move more slowly. Carbohydrate groups are attached to lipids, glycolipids, or proteins, or glycoproteins. These short oligosaccharides are chains f sugar molecules.The lipid bilayer is the main fabric of the membrane, and its structure creates a semi-permeable membrane. The functions in the membrane are determined by proteins. I have a good understanding of how the cell membrane functions, but I'am still confused on what certain things plays a certain role in the cell membrane. 

The Structure of Proteins!!!

This is a picture of collagen, a protein in our bodies.


    In Class, we have been studying about proteins. We did a fun experiment where we built protein molecules using fruit loops. The secondary structure of proteins is both helical and sheetlike. A quaternary structure the interaction of four separate polypeptide chains in a hemoglobin molecule. Collagen provides structure to our bodies, and it protects and supports the softer tissues. collagen in the bones of people with Osteogenesis Imperfecta does not function properly, and the bones break. It is a basic protein in our body. A peptide bond exists between two amino acids in a protein. The sequence of amino acids is the primary structure of proteins. The building blocks for amino acids are proteins. Proteins function as a lot of different things, such as enzymes, and hormones. Glucose is the basic unit of starch. Long chains of carbon found in triglycerides and phospholipids is fatty acids.The breakdown of large molecules of water is called hydrolysis. Proteins serve an important role in our bodies. I have a good understanding of proteins, and how they function in our body.  

macromolecules map

Different Types Of Macromolecules In Your Body

This is a picture of monosaccharides.



This is a picture of Sucrose which is a disaccharid, and Glucose and Frutose which is a monosaccharide.





 In Biology, we have been studying and learning about biochemistry. I have learned alot of things about macromolecules, like how they are big molecules that are the building blocks of most cells. The four main types of macromolecules are proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. Monomers are composed of sugars, amino acid, fatty acid, and nucleotides. These individual components are linked together, and they are built up of one building block. Monomers are joined together by a process called dehydration synthesis. A chain that is formed when monomers are linked together is a polymer. A polymerase enzyme joins monomers together. Polymers are broken down by a process called hyrolysis, in which a water molecule comes in and breaks a covalent bond between two polymers and the hydroxide ion from the ion and the oxygen bond to either monomer.

  In order to build a polysaccharide I arranged the sugar monomers by putting four of them in a row in the build a carbohydrate activity. Building blocks of molecules that are not used to build carbohydrates is the nucleotide, fatty acid and amino acid. Sugar is stored as glycogen in the human body for energy. Starch and glycogen are polymers of glucose. Plants are essential to animal life because animals take advantage of the ability of plants to manufacture sugar and other nutrients. Starch is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds. Starch is digested by animals by beginning in the mouth with salivary amylase that continues in the small intestine with pancreatic amylase. Saturated fat is a fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty radicals. It is the main dietary cause of high blood cholesterol.

The lab that we did consisted of testing different types of sugars, and classifying them as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The monosaccharides stays clear when using Iodine solution. Glucose would be an example of a monosaccharide. Mono means one, di means two, and poly means many. We tested different sugars using Benedict's and iodine solutions. To identify a sugar is a disaccharide, by using Benedict's Solution it turns out to be a blue color. Sucrose would be a disaccharide. A polysaccharide has no change in color when using Benedict's solution. When a sugar has a color change in Benedict's solution it is a monosaccharide and it turns a bright orange. Starch is a polysaccharide, and Fructose is a monosaccharide. To identify that a sugar is a monosaccharide, by using iodine solution it turns out to be a clear color. Three elements that are in all carbohydrates are oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon. By doing this lab and studying about the types of different macromolecules, I have a good understanding of how they function and work.

Content of Acids And Bases!!

  By doing a lab on testing different substances with vinegar, I learned about the different ph levels of different substances. When you add water to acids, it produces positive hydrogen ions. It removes negative oxygen hydrogens from water. Acid is an acid because it is an electron pair donor, which is a chemical that increases the concentration of hydronium ions in solution. Acids are chemicals that turn a litmus paper red color. Litmus is a coloured chemical that can change from red to blue and back again. Acids can react with metals and other materials. The excess hydronium ions in acids give them interesting properties. Liquid antacids usually work faster than tablets or chewables. They work by how a strong acid which is called HCl, is produced in your stomach to help digest food.   
 
  Bases are bases because they have hydrogen plus ions. They are defined as a proton acceptor, which is a chemical that reduces the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution, and increases the concentration of hydroxide ions. Bases are also very reactive, just like acids are.  The strong base NaOH is used in many household cleaning agents, such as oven cleaner.

   We measure the ph level of acids and bases by how the ph scale corresponds to the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution. For example, in pure water the concentration of hydronium ions is 1 x 10^-7 M, so the ph of a solution of pure water is 7. Acids, and bases in chemistry are an important part of everyday life. We use acids and bases all of the time, such as taking medicine or cleaning up stains with a product cleaner. So by doing a lab on acids and bases, and researching the content that makes up acids and bases, I have a good understanding of how they all function.

       

A picture of Different Acids

The Ph Level of Different Substances

New Technique to Visualize The Structure of Molecules

    I'am writing a article summary to meet standard two. The article, ' Dead Simple' way to see atomic structure is about how researchers have developed a way to pin down moving molecules under room-temperature. They were studying graphene on an atomically flat surface of mica and found some structures trapped between the graphene. Graphene is composed of one-atom layer of carbon atoms in a honeycomb-like lattice. The researchers decided to conduct experiments to test this new idea. They put graphene sheets at different humidity levels. It turned out that the graphene sheet hugged the water molecules tightly, and revealed their atomic structure when examined with atomic force microscopy. This technique is dead simple. The graphene holds the absorbed water molecules in place. By using this technique, there has been new evidence of how water coats surfaces. The first layer of water on mica is two water molecules thick, and it has the structure of ice. Researchers are working on improving the resolution of this technique, and help other types of molecules get there 3-D structure.

    This technique is really neat, because it determines the atomic structure of molecules. It has an impact on society, because it gives detail about the structure of molecules. If molecules will be able to get there 3-D structure it will have a bigger affect on society. Researchers always like to improve on the study that they work on. People are usually fascinated when new techniques are developed and how it improves the natural world. This article gave a lot of information, and it really explained this new technique that researchers have found dealing with water.

Extravagant Water Properties and Its Structure

    

This is a picture of water adhesion. 











    In biology, we have been studying about the different types of water properties. I have learned about the chemical structure of water and the different types of water properties. Water has a bent shape and the water molecules are polar which means that the molecules interact strongly with each other. The polarity of water is that the electrons are closer to oxygen rather then to hydrogen in a polar bond between hydrogen and oxygen. Water is polar which means it has a condition in which it has an uneven distribution of electron density. Any polar substance that can dissolve in water is hydrophilic. There are four properties of water and they are cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, and specific heat. Adhesion is an attractive force between molecules in one phase and different molecules in another phase. Trees transport water from its roots to its leaves because there are different molecules in the roots of the tree then the leaves so they have an attractive force between them. The water is held together against the force of gravity. 


   A substance that doesn't dissolve in water is hydrophobic like oil for example. Cohesion is the attractive force between similar molecules in the same phase. It can be thought of as the sum of hydrogen bonds. Water is also more dense than ice because water has more space between the water molecules. A liquid that dissolves another substance without changing its chemical composition is known as a solvent. Specific heat is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of a 1-gram sample of a substance by 1 degree Celsius. Copper takes less heat to raise its temperature to boil water than it does stainless steel.

Water has a high heating rate because it forms a network of hydrogen bonds. Surface tension is the energy needed to increase the surface area of a liquid by a given amount. For an example soap bubbles can remain stable in water and  its surface tension is reduced by a factor of three or more. Each molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Each hydrogen atom is connected to a oxygen atom with a covalent bond. I now have a good understanding about the properties of water, and its structure.    

 Water can absorb large amounts of heat energy before it begins to get hot. I understand the different types of different types of water properties, and how they each function. There are many different water properties that makes it unique in its league. Water is the major constituent of all life forms. More than 60% of plants and animals is made up of water. I don't really understand of how to classify the type of water property, it's hard to remember the difference between cohesion and adhesion. Water is really important in life, and we build off of it all of the time. 

This is a picture of water molecules. 

Cherlyn's Clinical-Trial Blog

Over these past few days in Biology we have been researching about clinical trials, and i researched a clinical trial about Pancreatic cancer. I learned that this study was a double-blind placebo. Double- blind means that when a clinical trial is conducted, the patients and the doctors don't know whether or not they are giving the patient the correct sugar pill. So, they have no clue if the pill will help out the patients with the disease they have or make it worse. Then when the results are in they evaluate the drugs to check if they actually work. In the study that I researched it was about whether or not the drug gemcitabine is more effective by itself or mixed with the drug oxaliplatin in treating this type of cancer. The experimental design was how the patients receive 1 of 3 treatment arms. Then, they compare the survival rates of the parents. There are many different kinds of different placebo double-blind trials, and each one explains how they keep evaluating the drugs to check if it cures the disease over a period of years. I now have a good idea of what double-blind means by researching clinical-trials. The clinical trial that I learned about was really interesting, and the study has been evaluated over the past three years.